Applying machine learning to optical coherence tomography images for automated tissue classification in brain metastases.

PURPOSE: A precise resection of the entire tumor tissue during surgery for brain metastases is essential to reduce local recurrence. Conventional intraoperative imaging techniques all have limitations in detecting tumor remnants. Therefore, there is a need for innovative new imaging methods such as optical coherence tomography (OCT). The purpose of this study is to discriminate brain metastases from healthy brain tissue in an ex vivo setting by applying texture analysis and machine learning algorithms for tissue classification to OCT images. METHODS: Tumor and healthy tissue samples were collected during resection of brain metastases. Samples were imaged using OCT. Texture features were extracted from B-scans. Then, a machine learning algorithm using principal component analysis (PCA) and support vector machines (SVM) was applied to the OCT scans for classification. As a gold standard, an experienced pathologist examined the tissue samples histologically and determined the percentage of vital tumor, necrosis and healthy tissue of each sample. A total of 14.336 B-scans from 14 tissue samples were included in the classification analysis. RESULTS: We were able to discriminate vital tumor from healthy brain tissue with an accuracy of 95.75%. By comparing necrotic tissue and healthy tissue, a classification accuracy of 99.10% was obtained. A generalized classification between brain metastases (vital tumor and necrosis) and healthy tissue was achieved with an accuracy of 96.83%. CONCLUSIONS: An automated classification of brain metastases and healthy brain tissue is feasible using OCT imaging, extracted texture features and machine learning with PCA and SVM. The established approach can prospectively provide the surgeon with additional information about the tissue, thus optimizing the extent of tumor resection and minimizing the risk of local recurrences.

Comparison between optical coherence tomography imaging and histological sections of peripheral nerves.

OBJECTIVE: Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is an imaging technique that uses the light-backscattering properties of different tissue types to generate an image. In an earlier feasibility study the authors showed that it can be applied to visualize human peripheral nerves. As a follow-up, this paper focuses on the interpretation of the images obtained. METHODS: Ten different short peripheral nerve specimens were retained following surgery. In a first step they were examined by OCT during, or directly after, surgery. In a second step the nerve specimens were subjected to histological examination. Various steps of image processing were applied to the OCT raw data acquired. The improved OCT images were compared with the sections stained by H & E. The authors assigned the structures in the images to the various nerve components including perineurium, fascicles, and intrafascicular microstructures. RESULTS: The results show that OCT is able to resolve the myelinated axons. A weighted averaging filter helps in identifying the borders of structural features and reduces artifacts at the same time. Tissue-remodeling processes due to injury (perineural fibrosis or neuroma) led to more homogeneous light backscattering. Anterograde axonal degeneration due to sharp injury led to a loss of visible axons and to an increase of light-backscattering tissue as well. However, the depth of light penetration is too small to allow generation of a complete picture of the nerve. CONCLUSIONS: OCT is the first in vivo imaging technique that is able to resolve a nerve's structures down to the level of myelinated axons. It can yield information about focal and segmental pathologies.

High-resolution in vivo imaging of peripheral nerves using optical coherence tomography: a feasibility study.

OBJECTIVE: Because of their complex topography, long courses, and small diameters, peripheral nerves are challenging structures for radiological diagnostics. However, imaging techniques in the area of peripheral nerve diseases have undergone unexpected development in recent decades. They include MRI and high-resolution sonography (HRS). Yet none of those imaging techniques reaches a resolution comparable to that of histological sections. Fascicles are the smallest discernable structure. Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is the first imaging technique that is able to depict a nerve's ultrastructure at micrometer resolution. In the current study, the authors present an in vivo assessment of human peripheral nerves using OCT. METHODS: OCT measurement was performed in 34 patients with different peripheral nerve pathologies, i.e., nerve compression syndromes. The nerves were examined during surgery after their exposure. Only the sural nerve was twice examined ex vivo. The Thorlabs OCT systems Callisto and Ganymede were used. For intraoperative use, a hand probe was covered with a sterile foil. Different postprocessing imaging techniques were applied and evaluated. In order to highlight certain structures, five texture parameters based on gray-level co-occurrence matrices were calculated according to Haralick. RESULTS: The intraoperative use of OCT is easy and intuitive. Image artifacts are mainly caused by motion and the sterile foil. If the artifacts are kept at a low level, the hyporeflecting bundles of nerve fascicles and their inner parts can be displayed. In the Haralick evaluation, the second angular moment is most suitable to depict the connective tissue. CONCLUSIONS: OCT is a new imaging technique that has shown promise in peripheral nerve surgery for particular questions. Its resolution exceeds that provided by recent radiological possibilities such as MRI and HRS. Since its field of view is relatively small, faster acquisition times would be highly desirable and have already been demonstrated by other groups. Currently, the method resembles an optical biopsy and can be a supplement to intraoperative sonography, giving high-resolution insight into a suspect area that has been located by sonography in advance.

Automated differentiation between meningioma and healthy brain tissue based on optical coherence tomography ex vivo images using texture features.

Brain tissue analysis is highly desired in neurosurgery, such as tumor resection. To guarantee best life quality afterward, exact navigation within the brain during the surgery is essential. So far, no method has been established that perfectly fulfills this need. Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is a promising three-dimensional imaging tool to support neurosurgical resections. We perform a preliminary study toward in vivo brain tumor removal assistance by investigating meningioma, healthy white, and healthy gray matter. For that purpose, we utilized a commercially available OCT device (Thorlabs Callisto) and measured eight samples of meningioma, three samples of healthy white, and two samples of healthy gray matter ex vivo directly after removal. Structural variations of different tissue types, especially meningioma, can already be seen in the raw OCT images. Nevertheless, an automated differentiation approach is desired, so that neurosurgical guidance can be delivered without a-priori knowledge of the surgeon. Therefore, we employ different algorithms to extract texture features and apply pattern recognition methods for their classification. With these postprocessing steps, an accuracy of nearly 98% was found.

Multiwavelength phase unwrapping and aberration correction using depth filtered digital holography.

In this Letter, we present a new approach to processing data from a standard spectral domain optical coherence tomography (OCT) system using depth filtered digital holography (DFDH). Intensity-based OCT processing has an axial resolution of the order of a few micrometers. When the phase information is used to obtain optical path length differences, subwavelength accuracy can be achieved, but this limits the resolvable step heights to half of the wavelength of the system. Thus there is a metrology gap between phase- and intensity-based methods. Our concept addresses this metrology gap by combining DFHD with multiwavelength phase unwrapping. Additionally, the measurements are corrected for aberrations. Here, we present proof of concept measurements of a structured semiconductor sample.

Comparison of different metrics for analysis and visualization in spectroscopic optical coherence tomography.

Spectroscopic Optical Coherence Tomography (S-OCT) extracts depth resolved spectra that are inherently available from OCT signals. The back scattered spectra contain useful functional information regarding the sample, since the light is altered by wavelength dependent absorption and scattering caused by chromophores and structures of the sample. Two aspects dominate the performance of S-OCT: (1) the spectral analysis processing method used to obtain the spatially-resolved spectroscopic information and (2) the metrics used to visualize and interpret relevant sample features. In this work, we focus on the second aspect, where we will compare established and novel metrics for S-OCT. These concepts include the adaptation of methods known from multispectral imaging and modern signal processing approaches such as pattern recognition. To compare the performance of the metrics in a quantitative manner, we use phantoms with microsphere scatterers of different sizes that are below the system's resolution and therefore cannot be differentiated using intensity based OCT images. We show that the analysis of the spectral features can clearly separate areas with different scattering properties in multi-layer phantoms. Finally, we demonstrate the performance of our approach for contrast enhancement in bovine articular cartilage.